This Guide is offered as a general guide for writing papers in Psychology.  Individual instructors and individual courses may have different or additional requirements, but in the absence of other guidelines to follow, these guidelines should have wide applicability.  Check with your instructor if you have any questions.

FORMAT

Paper: Use white paper of good quality, preferably 20lb weight.

Font: The font-size should be 12-point (the size used in this document), and the font style should be one of the conventional fonts used in manuscripts, such as Times New Roman, Courier, Arial.  More unusual and creative font styles should be avoided.

Type: Text should be regular, using Bold and Italic sparingly and only for special reasons.  Both upper and lower cases should be used, following standard rules of grammar.  Regular text should always be black; color, if available, should be used only for special purposes, such as graphs or charts.

Margins: Top and bottom margins should be set at 1”, and side margins set at either 1” or 1.25” – these are the defaults on most word processing standard documents.

Justifying: Text should always be left-justified only; do not justify both margins.  Do not hyphenate words at the end of a line.

Spacing: Regular text should always use double-spacing between rows.  Extra spacing may be left between major subsections of a paper.  Single-spacing may be used in tables.

Paragraphs: New paragraphs should be indented about 5 spaces, or 1 tab.  Paragraphs should always be more than a single sentence and should never be more than one page in length.

Headings and sub-headings: These are not required, but depending upon the overall length of a paper, they may be helpful.  Major headings are centered on the page, without underlining; all subheadings are underlined and are entered at the left margin.  Use uppercase and lowercase letters for headers and sub-headers as you would in a title.  Only start a new header or sub-header on a new page if there is not sufficient room on the current page to include the header/sub-header and two lines of text.  If using headers or sub-headers, there must always be at least two, or use none.

Page numbering: Pages in a paper should always be numbered consecutively, beginning with the title page as page number 1, but with the page number suppressed.  Page numbers should be placed on each subsequent page in the upper right corner.

Language: In most papers, language should be formal, avoiding the use of slang (“wicked good”), contractions (“isn’t” instead of “is not”), or overly dramatic wording.  Care should be taken to avoid all sexist language and to refer to people in a respectful, non-prejudicial or stereotyped manner.  Unless otherwise required, overly-personal material should be avoided.  It is appropriate to refer to oneself as “I” or “me” when stating an opinion or belief or conclusion.  It is generally not appropriate to use “you” to refer to the reader (e.g., “As can be seen in the following table,” rather than “As you can see in the following table).  Avoid jargon, excessive detail, and exaggeration

Quality Control: A paper should always be carefully proofread to find and fix errors, and corrections should be made through reprinting rather than by handwriting, liquid erasers, correcting tape, etc.  If available, computer Spell Checks can be used, but remember that they do not catch all mistakes and should never be used as a substitute for rereading a paper.  Reading a paper out loud is a particularly helpful way to ensure that it is well-written and easy to comprehend.

Miscellaneous: Make sure that all pages are neat, in the correct order, and stapled together with one staple in the upper left corner.  Unless otherwise instructed, do not put your paper in a folder or binder.
 

TOPIC

Although requirements for paper topics vary widely, the topic of a paper should involve a narrow, well-defined focus.  In general, instructors tend to prefer papers that have a very specific focus that enables the student to go into some depth, rather than broad or poorly focused papers in which the student only skims the surface.   Especially desirable is a topic that challenges the student to investigate some specific question or issue, so that the student’s efforts will be aimed at gathering and analyzing information pertaining to the question or issue, from which the student will be able to offer an intelligent and well-informed conclusion.

Thus, as examples of better and worse topics:

Worse: “Behavior modification.”
Better: “The use of behavior modification with autistic children.”

Worse: “Eating disorders.”
Better: “Family dynamics and the development of eating disorders in adolescence.”

Worse: “Alcoholism”
Better: “A comparison of medical and psychological perspectives on alcoholism.”
 

ORGANIZATION

Most papers should contain the following as separate pages and/or sections, organized in the order shown:

1. Title Page, listing (a) title of paper, which should be 5 to 15 words in length; (b) course name, number, and section; (c) instructor’s name; (d) student’s name and ID #; and (e) date of submission.

Note: The title of the paper should offer a succinct summary of the specific focus of the paper; the examples of ”worse” and “better” topics shown above are also examples of worse and better titles.

2. (Optional) Table of Contents: only required or helpful for papers more than 20 pages long.

3. (Optional) Abstract: usually 75 to 125 words in length, offering a brief summary of the entire paper.  Some instructors require an Abstract, others do not, but writing an Abstract is often a very useful way for students to solidify their own understanding of the major points of their papers.

4. Text: this is where page counting begins, and when instructors refer to, say, “10-page papers,” they begin counting here, not at the Title page or Table of Contents page or Abstract page (and they do not count Appendixes and References pages that follow the text).  Although the organization of the main text of the paper will depend on the unique requirements of each course and instructor, as a general rule the text of a paper is likely to include:

a. Introduction: a clear statement of the topic of the paper and of the issue(s), problem(s), or question(s) to be addressed, usually with a brief summary of what follows – a “preview of coming attractions,” as it were.  An Introduction may also include general background information, a discussion of why the issue(s)/problem(s)/question(s) is/are important, as well as a brief review of some of the current views in the field.

b. Review of Literature: although the requirements and expectations of papers in Psychology may vary, there is usually the expectation that students will conduct library research (or research on the Internet) to find source material relevant to their topic.  Thus, much of the main text of a paper will be devoted to a summary and discussion of the opinions, theories, and studies found in these various sources.  This section of a paper may be organized by source, presenting each reference one at a time; or it may be organized by topic, presenting one issue at a time and going back and forth between the different references.

c. Discussion/Analysis: in their Review of Literature, students are summarizing the thoughts/works/contributions of others.  As part of this review, or as a separate section, students should also offer their own discussion and analysis of the strengths and weaknesses, agreements and disagreements, consistencies and inconsistencies, of the information they have reviewed.

d. Summary and Conclusions: a paper should end with a brief summary of what has been learned/found and a discussion of its significance.  Where possible and relevant, a student should also offer a conclusion for whatever issue/problem/question was the focus of the paper.  Conclusions should include a summary of what appears to be known, agreed to and/or scientifically established versus what is still a matter of on-going debate or speculation or research.

5. (Optional) Appendixes: it is sometimes helpful to attach to a paper examples of more detailed tables and charts, or copies of questionnaires, or transcripts of interviews, or lists of addresses, or maps, or photos, etc., etc.

6. References: a listing of all references actually cited in the text of the paper.  Other references that may have been consulted but which were not specifically referred to in the text are not included.
 

REFERENCES

Although expectations may differ by course and instructor, as a general rule students should be locating and using quality source material in Psychology and from reputable sources on the Internet.  Popular magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, and dictionaries are generally not appropriate, nor are sources from other fields; textbooks should be used sparingly.  References more than 30 years old are also not appropriate unless one specifically wants historical material as a reference.

Note on Online References: the Internet can be a very valuable source of information, but there is also a lot of very poor, even worthless, information online, and it may not always be easy for students to judge the quality.  Using the Internet to view or download online journals or to access databases is almost always recognized by instructors as legitimate.  Obtaining information from websites maintained by reputable sources (like the American Psychological Association) is also widely acceptable.  Unfortunately, there are many sites that are far too unreliable to be used as credible sources.  Students are urged to check with individual instructors before using online references.

Using abstracts: Students are often more able to find published abstracts of articles, especially with online and electronic sources, but may not be able to locate the full text.  It is appropriate to use an abstract as a source, but be sure to make clear that it was the abstract and not the full text.  The abstract should be correctly listed in the References section, citing its printed, electronic, or online source.

All references cited in the text of the paper must appear in the References section at the end of the paper.  References are listed in alphabetical order by last names of authors, using the appropriate format from among those shown below:

Journal/periodical article: Author’s last name, first initial (plus additional authors’ last names and first initials as needed, and in the order in which they appear in the journal); year of publication, in parentheses; title of article, with first letter capitalized, no quotation marks or underlining or italics; title of journal or periodical in italics or underlined; volume number of journal or periodical in italics or underlined; page numbers (inclusive of all pages of entire article).  When the periodical is a newspaper or magazine, the date is given along with the year.

Smith, R., & Jones, W. (1994). A study of children’s perceptions of divorce.  Psychology Journal, 22, 123-133.

Book: Author’s last name, first initial (plus additional authors’ last names and first initials as needed, and in the order in which they appear in the book); year of publication, in parentheses; title of book, with first letter capitalized, underlined or in italics; city of publisher  followed by colon followed by name of publisher.

Jones, W., Smith, R., & Brown, M. L. (1993). Children of divorce. New York: Psychology Press.

Article or chapter by one author(s) in an edited book containing multiple articles or chapters by different author(s): Author’s last name, first initial (plus additional authors’ last names and first initials as needed); year of publication, in parentheses; title of chapter or article, with first letter capitalized, no quotation marks or underlining or italics.  “In” editor(s), with (Eds.), title of book in italics or underlined; page numbers in parentheses (inclusive of all pages of entire article); city of publisher followed by colon followed by name of publisher.

 Black, R., & White, M.L. (1995).  Behavior systems and learning.  In S.B.
Smith and R.M. Jones (Eds.), Contemporary concepts of learning (pp. 138-176).  Hillsdale, NJ:Erbaum.

Electronic and online sources: Author’s last name, first initial (plus additional authors’ last names and first initials as needed); the date of publication or copyright (if no date is available, use date of search); full title of the source, underlined, and a description of the nature of the source (CD-ROM, World Wide Web, Telnet, Usenet Newsgroups, Gopher, FTP, etc.) or database (PsychInfo, ERIC, Dissertation Abstracts, etc.); and a description of availability (e.g., Silver Platter, online URL, etc.)

LaConte, M.A., Shaw, D., & Dunn, I. (1993).  The effects of a rational-emotive affective education program for high-risk middle school students. [CD-ROM]. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 274-281.  Available from: Silver Platter 3.11: PsycLIT Item: 81-07567

DiStefano, V. Guidelines for better writing. [Online] January 9,1996. Available http://www.usa.net/~vinced/home/better-writing.html.

Note: If your References contain two or more individual references by exactly the same author(s), in exactly the same order, with exactly the same year of publication, use the letters a, b, c, etc. to distinguish (1988a, 1988b).  Be sure to use the letters both in the References list and whenever each reference is cited in the text.

The general rule is to provide sufficient information about each reference to enable readers to locate the references for themselves.
 

CITING SOURCES IN THE TEXT

General Principle: Correctly citing sources in the text of a paper is very important for at least two reasons.  First, citing sources lets your instructor appreciate the amount of work you have done to locate and use good sources.

Second, it is a matter of academic honesty.  Every time you make reference to an idea, opinion, fact, theory, research finding, etc., that you have found in some source, you must clearly indicate that source to show that it is the work of another.  To present the material without citing the source is dishonest because it suggests that the material is your own.  Such dishonesty constitutes what is known as “plagiarism,” one of the most serious of academic offenses, and one which can lead to charges being brought against a student.

Rules for Citing Sources:

1. What to cite: A reference is cited by giving the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication.  The name(s) and year should correspond exactly to the listing on the References list at the end of the paper.  If the work cited has  two authors, include both names in the citation; if the work cited has three or more names, cite all names the first time the work is cited, and then subsequently use only the first author’s last name followed by “et al” (from the Latin for “and others”).
2. When to cite: Every single time you are making any reference to, or paraphrasing, or taking direct quotes from, one of your sources.  The citation should occur as soon in the sentence or paragraph as possible, to immediately draw the attention of your reader to the fact that you are drawing material from an outside source.  If you continue over the course of several sentences or even several paragraphs to draw from the same source, it is not necessary to continue to cite it.  The general rule is that whenever your reader may not be sure of the source of your information, you should cite the source.
3. Where to cite: Right in the text of the paper.  Do not use footnotes or endnotes.
4. How to cite: Reference should be cited as part of the natural flow of text.  Do not just tack a citation to the end of a paragraph.  The following are examples of the many appropriate ways to cite references:

In a study by Smith and his colleagues (Smith, Brown, & Jones, 1994), it was found that…..

The problem of correct diagnosis has been frequently mentioned.  For example, Morrison (1991) has argued that…

Many studies have found this approach to be effective (Fox, 1990; Smith & Brown, 1992).

Robinson (1989) and Jones and White (1985) have conducted studies in which they have shown that….

5. Personal communications (letters, telephone calls, e-mail, conversations, interviews) and material obtained from lectures are cited in the text only, by providing first initial and last name of source along with the date of the communication (R. Siegel, class lecture, September 25, 1998, or J. Smith, personal communication, April 15, 1997).

Using Quotations:

When material from outside sources is referred to or paraphrased, follow the rules shown above.  When using exact quotes of 5 words or more in exact order from a source, additional rules must be followed.

1. In addition to citing the author(s) and year, the page number(s) of the quote must be given.

2. A short quote (less than 40 words) must be inside quotation marks, included as part of the usual double-spaced text.

3. Lengthier quotes (40 words or more) are inserted as separate paragraphs, indented one tab, double-spaced, and without quotation marks.

Note on Using Quotes: The purpose of a paper is for students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding and thus should largely be written in the
students’ own words; excessive use of quotations is not good practice.

4. The quote should end without a period, followed by the page number(s) in parentheses and ending with a period.  If the author(s) and year of the quote had been cited just before the quote, do not repeat, but if not previously given, include them in the parentheses after the quote.

5. Words may be left out of a quote, with the omission shown by using multiple periods (….); do not include in the content of the quote any citations of or quotes from other sources.

Distinguishing Primary from ‘Second-hand’ Sources:

Sources cited must be those sources which you actually read.  Within those sources, there may be references to other material, but you may not cite these additional sources unless you have gone out to locate and read them for yourself.

Thus, imagine you are reading a book or article by Smith (1994), and in that reference Smith talks about an interesting study done by Jones (1987).  You find the Jones’ study to be very relevant to your paper and you would like to mention it.  Unless you actually go out and find the original Jones’ study mentioned by Smith, your reference must be Smith:

 In a study of effectiveness conducted by Jones (Smith, 1994) ……

One of the most important studies was carried out in the late 1980’s by Robert Jones (Smith, 1994), who found that …..

In other words, always remember that your references consist only of those sources that you yourself actually read.  All information contained in these sources must be cited as coming from these references, regardless of where and by whom the information may have originally been published.  To cite as a source any material that you yourself have not read is dishonest.  Consider the case of a student who gets all the material for a paper from one book.  However, that book makes reference to many other books and articles, and the student cites many of these as sources and includes them on the References list.  The impression is that the student has spent a lot of time in the library looking up and reading many sources, and that would clearly be a misrepresentation.
 

A FINAL NOTE: Unless otherwise explicitly allowed by an instructor, it is always assumed that a paper submitted by a student has been written by that student and specifically for that course.  Submitting a paper written in part or in full by another, or purchased or downloaded from another source or service, or that had been previously submitted for a different course in substantially the same form, is a serious violation of academic honesty.

Copyright ©1998 Beverly J. Volicer and Steven F. Tello, UMass Lowell.  You may freely edit these pages for use in a non-profit, educational setting.  Please include this copyright notice on all pages.